1917 Russian Revolution: Voices from the Streets of Petrograd
Overview
The Russian Revolution of the early 20th century remains one of the most significant events in world history. It marked the end of centuries of imperial rule, gave rise to communism, and paved the way for the creation of the Soviet Union. This dramatic series of events was not confined to a single moment or day—it unfolded in stages, including the February Revolution, the October Revolution, and the Russian Civil War. In this article by Academic Block, we will explore the causes, key events, and consequences of the Russian Revolution, with profound influence on the course of World War I and the subsequent reshaping of the international order.
What Led the Russian Revolution
The Russian Revolution was fueled by widespread discontent over autocratic rule, economic hardship, and World War I's toll on Russia. The Bolshevik movement, led by Lenin, capitalized on these issues, leading to the 1917 overthrow of the Tsarist regime. Before diving into the revolutions themselves, it’s essential to understand the background that led to such dramatic upheaval.
- Under Tsar Nicholas II, the gap between the elite and the masses widened.
- Severe repression and poor living conditions fueled discontent.
- Industrial workers faced harsh conditions, low wages, and long working hours.
- Rapid industrialization led to overcrowded cities and lack of labor rights.
- World War I drained resources, caused millions of casualties, and further discredited the Tsarist regime.
- Revolutionary ideologies, particularly Marxism, gained popularity.
- Growing dissatisfaction with the monarchy and demand for systemic change.
Key Events of the Russian Revolution
The February Revolution: The Fall of the Tsar
The first phase of the Russian Revolution unfolded in February 1917 (March, according to the Gregorian calendar). It was a spontaneous uprising fueled by widespread dissatisfaction with the monarchy.
- Discontent among soldiers refusing to fight in World War I.
- Tsar Nicholas II’s failure to address growing public dissatisfaction and crises.
- Women workers played a central role, demanding bread and an end to the war.
- Protests grew larger, and many soldiers sided with the demonstrators instead of suppressing them.
- This marked the end of the Romanov dynasty, which had ruled for over 300 years.
- It struggled to gain support due to its failure to address critical issues like land redistribution and withdrawal from World War I.
The October Revolution: Rise of the Bolsheviks
The second phase of the Russian Revolution, known as the October Revolution, took place later in 1917. Unlike the February Revolution, which was largely spontaneous, the October Revolution was a planned uprising led by the Bolsheviks, a faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party.
- Presented the April Theses, advocating for:
- “Peace, Land, and Bread.”
- Transfer of power to the Soviets (workers' councils).
- The Bolsheviks gained support by promising:
- An end to the war
- Land redistribution
- Worker control of factories.
- Key government buildings were captured.
- The Winter Palace, the base of the Provisional Government, was stormed.
- This marked the beginning of the Soviet state and the rise of Bolshevik authority.
The Russian Civil War: The Struggle for Control
The Bolsheviks’ rise to power did not go unchallenged. The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a brutal conflict between the Bolsheviks (known as the Reds) and their opponents, the Whites, who included monarchists, liberals, and other anti-Bolshevik groups.
- Ethnic minorities sought independence from Russian rule.
- Foreign powers (Britain, France, Japan, and others) intervened to support the Whites, fearing the global spread of communism.
- The war saw widespread atrocities, including:
- Massacres of civilians by both sides.
- The execution of the Romanov family in 1918.
- The Bolsheviks launched the Red Terror, employing harsh measures to eliminate opposition.
- The war left Russia devastated, with:
- Millions of lives lost.
- The economy in ruins, requiring extensive reconstruction.
Economic Causes of the Russian Revolution
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Widespread Poverty Among Peasants : The majority of Russia's population were peasants living in extreme poverty. They faced heavy taxes, lacked access to modern farming tools, and were often burdened by debts, making their lives increasingly difficult.
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Industrialization and Poor Working Conditions : Rapid industrial growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries created overcrowded cities and exploited industrial workers. Low wages, long working hours, and unsafe conditions led to frequent strikes and worker unrest.
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Land Ownership Inequalities : Most arable land was controlled by the nobility, leaving peasants with insufficient land to sustain themselves. Their demand for land reform went unanswered, fueling resentment against the monarchy.
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Economic Strain of World War I : World War I drained Russia’s economy. Resources were diverted to the military, leading to food shortages, inflation, and a collapsing transportation system, which further aggravated the living conditions of the common people.
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Failure of Tsarist Economic Policies : The Tsarist regime failed to implement effective economic reforms. Corruption and inefficiency within the government prevented progress and deepened public dissatisfaction.
1905 Revolution in Russia Vs. 1917 Revolution in Russia
- Political repression under Tsar Nicholas II.
- Political discontent with Tsar Nicholas II and his failure to address growing unrest.
- Mass strikes, protests, and uprisings across Russia.
- October Revolution (1917): Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, seized power.
- Revolution failed to bring major change, but it sparked further unrest.
- Rise of the Bolshevik Party and the establishment of a communist government under Lenin.
What were the Effects of the Russian Revolution
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Formation of the Soviet Union : In 1922, the Bolsheviks established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), a federal state governed by communist principles.
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Global Influence : The Russian Revolution inspired communist movements worldwide, leading to the establishment of communist regimes in countries like China, Cuba, and Vietnam.
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Economic and Social Changes :
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The Bolsheviks implemented radical reforms, including land redistribution, nationalization of industries, and free education.
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The revolution also brought significant changes in gender equality, with women gaining greater rights.
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Cold War Legacy : The Russian Revolution laid the groundwork for the ideological conflict between capitalism and communism that defined much of the 20th century.
What Was a Main Result of the Russian Revolution?
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End of Tsarist Rule : The Russian Revolution led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, ending over 300 years of Romanov rule and the autocratic monarchy in Russia.
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Rise of Bolshevik Power : The Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in October 1917, establishing a communist government. This marked the start of Soviet rule in Russia.
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Formation of the Soviet Union : The revolution set the stage for the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922, a federation of socialist republics under communist control, which lasted until 1991.
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Economic Transformation : The revolution led to the nationalization of industry, land redistribution, and the introduction of planned economy policies, significantly altering Russia’s economic landscape.
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Social and Political Change : It inspired global communist movements and established a one-party state in Russia, dramatically transforming its political structure and societal norms.
Final Words
The Russian Revolution of 1917 represents a watershed moment in world history, marking the downfall of Tsarist autocracy and the rise of Bolshevik socialism. The revolution's profound impact on World War I, the subsequent Civil War, and the establishment of the Soviet Union reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the 20th century, leaving an indelible mark on global politics, society, and warfare. Please provide your views in the comment section to make this article better. Thanks for Reading!
This Article will answer your questions like:
The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the collapse of the Tsarist autocracy and the rise of the Soviet Union. It was a key event in world history, fueled by economic hardship, discontent with autocratic rule, and military failures during World War I. The revolution culminated in two phases: the February Revolution, which abdicated Tsar Nicholas II, and the October Revolution, which brought the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, to power.
The Russian Revolution was a series of political and social events that dismantled the Russian Empire. It occurred due to a combination of factors, including the inefficiency of Tsar Nicholas II's autocratic rule, widespread poverty, a desire for political reform, and discontent among workers and peasants. World War I exacerbated these tensions, leading to mass protests, strikes, and eventually the overthrow of the monarchy in 1917, replaced by Bolshevik leadership.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 was primarily led by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolshevik Party. Lenin, a Marxist revolutionary, played a central role in organizing the overthrow of the Provisional Government during the October Revolution. His leadership, combined with the support of workers, soldiers, and peasants, facilitated the Bolsheviks' seizure of power, which ultimately led to the establishment of the Soviet state and the withdrawal of Russia from World War I.
The economic causes of the Russian Revolution were rooted in widespread inequality, poverty, and exploitation of the working class. The Russian economy was predominantly agrarian, and peasants were burdened with heavy taxes. Industrial workers faced harsh working conditions and low wages. The impact of World War I worsened economic conditions, with food shortages, inflation, and economic disarray, which contributed to public dissatisfaction and revolutionary fervor against the Tsarist regime.
The October Revolution of 1917 was pivotal in establishing Soviet power in Russia. It led to the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the rise of Bolshevik rule. The revolution marked the beginning of significant political and social changes, including the withdrawal of Russia from World War I, the redistribution of land to peasants, and the nationalization of industries. It also laid the foundation for the creation of the Soviet Union and the establishment of a communist state.
The Russian Revolution had far-reaching effects, both within Russia and globally. Domestically, it led to the establishment of the Soviet state and a radical transformation of Russian society, including the creation of a one-party state under the Bolsheviks. Economically, the revolution initiated land reforms, nationalization of industries, and the introduction of collectivization. On the global stage, the revolution inspired communist movements and altered the balance of power during the 20th century, contributing to the Cold War's ideological divide.
The Russian Revolution occurred in two main stages: the February Revolution, which began in February 1917 (Julian calendar, March in the Gregorian calendar) and led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, and the October Revolution, which started in October 1917 (Julian calendar, November in the Gregorian calendar). While the February Revolution marked the end of the Tsarist regime, the October Revolution solidified Bolshevik power, culminating in the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922.
The Russian Revolution was caused by a combination of long-term grievances and immediate factors. The Tsarist autocracy's refusal to implement democratic reforms, coupled with widespread poverty, inequality, and discontent among workers and peasants, contributed to growing unrest. The economic strain caused by Russia's involvement in World War I exacerbated these issues, leading to mass protests and strikes in early 1917, eventually forcing Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate, paving the way for the Bolshevik-led revolution later that year.
The Russian Revolution did not have a single definitive end date but is generally considered to have ended with the consolidation of Bolshevik power by 1922. After the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolsheviks faced resistance from other factions, leading to a prolonged civil war. By 1922, the Bolsheviks had defeated the White Army and other rivals, establishing the Soviet Union as a one-party state under Lenin’s leadership, marking the end of the revolution's violent phase.
The first Russian Revolution, which occurred in 1905, ended with the victory of the Russian government, which was able to suppress the uprising. However, the revolution resulted in some concessions, including the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the creation of the Duma (a legislative body), and the granting of some civil liberties. Although the Tsarist regime survived, it was weakened, and the revolution laid the groundwork for the 1917 revolutions that eventually overthrew Tsar Nicholas II.
The 1905 Russian Revolution was caused by widespread dissatisfaction with Tsar Nicholas II's autocratic rule, economic hardship, and social inequality. Poor working conditions, political repression, and military defeats, particularly during the Russo-Japanese War, fueled unrest. The massacre of peaceful protesters on "Bloody Sunday" in January 1905 further intensified protests. The revolution led to the creation of the Duma (parliament) and limited reforms, but the Tsar maintained control.
A main result of the Russian Revolution was the establishment of a communist government led by the Bolshevik Party under Vladimir Lenin. This revolution dismantled the Tsarist autocracy and led to the withdrawal of Russia from World War I. It also paved the way for the eventual formation of the Soviet Union, which became a major world power and significantly influenced global politics throughout the 20th century, including the Cold War between the capitalist West and communist East.
The Russian Revolution involved key groups such as the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, workers, peasants, and soldiers. It also saw the involvement of the Provisional Government, which struggled to maintain control. The revolution marked the collapse of the Russian Empire and the rise of the Soviet state, driven by political, social, and economic unrest. The conflict eventually led to the formation of the Soviet Union and the establishment of a communist regime.
Vladimir Lenin played a central role in the Russian Revolution by leading the Bolshevik Party to power. His leadership and ideology, grounded in Marxism, inspired the overthrow of the Provisional Government. Lenin's vision for a socialist state emphasized the needs of the working class and peasants. He orchestrated the October Revolution of 1917, resulting in the establishment of a communist government and the foundation of the Soviet Union, which would shape global politics for much of the 20th century.
The overall goal of the Russian Revolution was to overthrow the Tsarist autocracy and establish a government that would represent the interests of the working class, peasants, and soldiers. The revolution sought to dismantle the old feudal system and replace it with a socialist state. It aimed at redistributing land, wealth, and power, promoting equality and workers' control over production. The Bolsheviks, under Lenin's leadership, aspired to create a communist society that would lead to the eventual global spread of revolution.
One major consequence of the October Revolution was the establishment of Bolshevik control over Russia, marking the beginning of the Soviet regime. This revolution dismantled the Provisional Government and led to the creation of the first communist state. It fundamentally changed the political landscape by redistributing land and power, abolishing private property, and promoting socialist reforms. The October Revolution also sparked a civil war, which ultimately consolidated Bolshevik power, leading to the formation of the Soviet Union in 1922.
The February Revolution (1917) resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the end of over 300 years of Romanov rule. It led to the establishment of a Provisional Government. In contrast, the October Revolution (1917), led by Lenin and the Bolsheviks, overthrew the Provisional Government, replacing it with a socialist regime. The February Revolution was more of a mass uprising against autocracy, while the October Revolution was a planned, ideological takeover by the Bolshevik Party, aiming to create a Marxist state.
The Russian Revolution refers to the broader series of events, including both the February and October Revolutions, that led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and the establishment of the Soviet Union. The Bolshevik Revolution, a part of the October Revolution, specifically refers to the Bolshevik Party's seizure of power under Lenin's leadership. While the Russian Revolution includes multiple factions and movements, the Bolshevik Revolution represents the successful coup by the Marxist Bolsheviks that shaped Russia's future socialist trajectory.
Controversies revolving around Russian Revolution
Historical Interpretations: One major controversy centers on differing interpretations of the revolution’s causes, significance, and outcomes. Historians disagree over the extent to which the revolution was a spontaneous uprising of the masses driven by socioeconomic grievances, or a carefully orchestrated coup d’état by the Bolsheviks seeking to seize power and impose their socialist agenda. There is also debate over the revolution’s impact on Russian society and the broader world. While some argue that the revolution brought about positive changes, such as the end of autocracy and the establishment of a more egalitarian society, others emphasize its negative consequences, including political repression, economic hardship, and the erosion of civil liberties.
Role of Leadership: The role of key figures such as Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, and Joseph Stalin in the revolution and its aftermath remains a subject of controversy. While some view Lenin and Trotsky as visionary leaders who spearheaded the Bolsheviks’ revolutionary struggle and laid the groundwork for the creation of the Soviet Union, others criticize their authoritarian tactics, manipulation of power, and disregard for democratic principles. Similarly, the legacy of Stalin’s rule and his role in consolidating power, implementing collectivization and industrialization, and carrying out purges and mass repression continues to be a source of contention. Some argue that Stalin’s policies were necessary for the survival and modernization of the Soviet state, while others condemn them as brutal and totalitarian.
Civil War and Violence: The Russian Civil War, fought between the Bolshevik Reds and their anti-Bolshevik White opponents, remains a highly contentious and divisive period in Russian history. Historians debate the causes and nature of the conflict, including the extent of foreign intervention, class-based motivations, and ethnic tensions.
Legacy and Memory: The legacy of the Russian Revolution and its commemoration in contemporary Russia remain politically charged issues. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia has grappled with how to interpret and remember its revolutionary past, with competing narratives vying for prominence. While the Russian government under President Vladimir Putin has sought to downplay the revolution’s significance and emphasize a more patriotic and nationalist narrative of Russian history, various opposition groups, intellectuals, and civil society organizations continue to commemorate the revolution as a symbol of resistance, social justice, and revolutionary spirit.
International Impact: The international impact of the Russian Revolution, particularly its role in shaping global politics and ideology, is a subject of debate. Some argue that the revolution inspired leftist movements and revolutionary upheaval around the world, leading to the establishment of communist regimes in countries such as China, Cuba, and Vietnam. Others contend that the revolution’s influence was limited and that its failure to spread beyond Russia’s borders was evidence of its inherent weaknesses and contradictions.
Impacts of Russian Revolution
Global Spread of Communism: The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and the establishment of the Soviet Union served as a powerful symbol and inspiration for socialist and communist movements around the world. The Soviet model of governance, based on Marxist-Leninist ideology, attracted followers in various countries, leading to the formation of communist parties and revolutionary organizations. The spread of communism, fueled by the Bolsheviks’ call for world revolution, profoundly influenced international politics and contributed to the polarization of the Cold War era.
Redrawing of Borders and National Identities: The Russian Revolution and the subsequent Civil War resulted in significant territorial changes and the redrawing of borders in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The collapse of the Russian Empire and the emergence of new states, such as the Soviet republics and independent nations like Finland, Poland, and the Baltic states, reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the region. The establishment of the Soviet Union also fostered the development of new national identities and ethnic identities within its diverse population, leading to the promotion of indigenous languages, cultures, and traditions.
Modernization and Industrialization: Despite the economic disruptions and hardships caused by the revolution and the Civil War, the Soviet government embarked on ambitious programs of modernization and industrialization aimed at transforming Russia into a modern socialist state. Through centralized planning, collectivization of agriculture, and rapid industrial expansion, the Soviet Union achieved remarkable economic growth and technological advancements, turning Russia into a global superpower and challenging the dominance of Western capitalist economies.
Cultural and Social Changes: The Russian Revolution brought about significant cultural and social changes, particularly in the realms of education, art, and literature. The Bolsheviks promoted a vision of a new socialist society based on principles of equality, solidarity, and proletarian culture. They invested heavily in education, literacy programs, and cultural institutions, seeking to create a new generation of Soviet citizens imbued with revolutionary zeal and loyalty to the state. Soviet art and literature flourished under the patronage of the state, producing works that celebrated the achievements of socialism and the heroism of the working class.
Legacy of Repression and Human Rights Violations: Despite its lofty ideals and aspirations, the Soviet regime under Lenin and his successors was characterized by authoritarianism, repression, and human rights violations. The Bolsheviks’ monopoly on power, coupled with their ruthless suppression of dissent and opposition, led to widespread political persecution, censorship, and the establishment of a vast system of forced labor camps (Gulags) where millions of perceived enemies of the state were imprisoned and executed.
Russian Revolution Timeline
1905-1916: Pre-Revolution Period
1905: Revolution of 1905
- “Bloody Sunday” massacre: Soldiers fire on peaceful protesters in St. Petersburg, sparking mass unrest.
- Tsar Nicholas II reluctantly issues the October Manifesto, promising a constitution and establishing the Duma (parliament).
1914: World War I Begins
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Russia enters the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary, suffering heavy casualties, economic strain, and widespread discontent.
1916:
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Grigori Rasputin (a mystic with influence over the royal family) is assassinated by nobles concerned with his political power.
February Revolution (March 1917)
February 23, 1917 (March 8, Gregorian Calendar): Protests in Petrograd
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Workers and women rally for food, bread, and political reform.
February 27, 1917 (March 12): Mutiny of soldiers
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Soldiers join the protestors, leading to widespread riots.
March 2, 1917: Tsar Nicholas II Abdicates
- The Romanov dynasty ends after Nicholas abdicates in favor of his brother, who refuses the throne.
- The Provisional Government is formed, led by Prince Georgy Lvov, sharing power with the Petrograd Soviet.
October Revolution (November 1917)
April 3, 1917: Lenin returns to Russia
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Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Party, returns from exile with his famous April Theses, calling for “All Power to the Soviets” and withdrawal from WWI.
July 1917: July Days unrest
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Armed protests by workers and soldiers erupt, but are suppressed. Alexander Kerensky becomes Prime Minister of the Provisional Government.
October 25-26, 1917 (November 7-8): Bolshevik Takeover
- Bolsheviks seize key government buildings in Petrograd and overthrow the Provisional Government.
- Lenin declares the establishment of a Soviet government.
1918-1924: Aftermath and Civil War
March 3, 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
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Russia exits WWI, ceding territory to Germany in exchange for peace.
July 17, 1918:
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Execution of Tsar Nicholas II and his family by Bolsheviks in Yekaterinburg.
1918-1920: Russian Civil War
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The Red Army (Bolsheviks) fights the White Army (anti-Bolshevik forces) across the country.
1921: Kronstadt Rebellion
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Sailors revolt against Bolshevik rule, crushed by Lenin’s forces.
1922: Formation of the Soviet Union
- The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is officially established.
- January 21, 1924: Lenin dies, and a power struggle ensues between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky.
Facts on Russian Revolution
Role of Women in the Revolution: Women played a significant role in the Russian Revolution, not only as participants in protests and demonstrations but also as organizers, leaders, and combatants. Women’s involvement in revolutionary activities led to advancements in gender equality, including the establishment of women’s councils (zhensoviets), the right to vote, access to education and employment, and the promotion of gender-neutral laws and policies.
Impact of Propaganda: Propaganda played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and mobilizing support for the revolution. Bolshevik leaders, such as Lenin and Trotsky, utilized newspapers, pamphlets, posters, and mass rallies to disseminate their socialist message, incite class consciousness, and demonize their political opponents. The Bolsheviks’ effective use of propaganda helped galvanize popular support and undermine the authority of the Provisional Government.
International Dimension of the Revolution: The Russian Revolution had a profound impact on the global stage, inspiring socialist movements and revolutionary upheaval in other countries. The Bolsheviks’ call for world revolution and the establishment of a global socialist order resonated with leftist activists and intellectuals worldwide, leading to the formation of communist parties and revolutionary movements in Europe, Asia, and the Americas. The Russian Revolution also contributed to the rise of communist regimes in countries such as China, Cuba, and Vietnam in the 20th century.
Cultural and Artistic Renaissance: The Russian Revolution sparked a vibrant cultural and artistic renaissance, characterized by experimentation, innovation, and ideological fervor. Avant-garde artists, writers, and filmmakers embraced the revolutionary spirit, producing bold and provocative works that challenged traditional norms and celebrated the ideals of socialism and proletarian solidarity. The period of artistic ferment known as the “Russian avant-garde” gave rise to movements such as Constructivism, Futurism, and Socialist Realism, leaving a lasting legacy on Russian culture and the global art world.
Foreign Intervention in the Civil War: During the Russian Civil War, foreign powers intervened on behalf of the anti-Bolshevik White forces in an attempt to overthrow the Bolshevik government and restore stability to Russia. Countries such as Britain, France, the United States, and Japan provided military aid, supplies, and troops to the Whites, hoping to prevent the spread of communism and protect their own strategic interests in the region. However, the interventionist efforts were ultimately unsuccessful, as the Red Army, under the leadership of Trotsky, successfully repelled the foreign invaders and secured Bolshevik control over Russia.
Creation of the Soviet Union: The Russian Revolution laid the foundation for the creation of the Soviet Union, a vast multinational state encompassing Russia and its neighboring territories. In December 1922, the Bolshevik government, along with representatives from other Soviet republics, formally established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), marking the culmination of Lenin’s vision of a socialist federation of nations. The Soviet Union would become a dominant geopolitical force in the 20th century, shaping global politics, ideology, and conflict until its collapse in 1991.
Academic References on Russian Revolution
Books:
- Figes, O. (1996). A People’s Tragedy: The Russian Revolution 1891-1924. Penguin Books.
- Pipes, R. (1991). The Russian Revolution. Vintage.
- Service, R. (2009). The Russian Revolution, 1900-1927. Macmillan.
- Fitzpatrick, S. (1994). The Russian Revolution. Oxford University Press.
- Slezkine, Y. (2017). The House of Government: A Saga of the Russian Revolution. Princeton University Press.
- Rabinowitch, A. (2007). The Bolsheviks in Power: The First Year of Soviet Rule in Petrograd. Indiana University Press.
- Figes, O. (2014). Revolutionary Russia, 1891-1991: A History. Metropolitan Books.
- Smith, S. A. (2017). Russia in Revolution: An Empire in Crisis, 1890 to 1928. Oxford University Press.
Journal Articles:
- Tuminez, A. S. (2007). Lenin’s Dictatorship and Terror: The Theater of Operations and the Red Terror, 1918-1922. The Journal of Modern History, 79(3), 605-640.
- Rabinowitch, A. (1978). The October Revolution: A Bibliographic Survey. The Russian Review, 37(1), 1-28.
- Stites, R. (1975). October 1917 in Russian Historiography: The Revolutions in Retrospect. Russian Review, 34(4), 345-361.
- Haimson, L. H. (1972). The Problem of Social Stability in Urban Russia, 1905-1917. The American Historical Review, 77(5), 1237-1262.
- Smith, S. A. (1999). War and Revolution in the East: The Question of Russian Territorial Expansion, 1914–1917. The Journal of Modern History, 71(2), 343-377.
- Rosenfeld, S. (1982). The Russian Revolution: Two Views. World Affairs, 144(1), 55-62.